Terms to Know for the AP Test Argumentation (The use of logic to prove a point) Assert/assertions/unqualified assertions – opinions stated as facts – the basis of all arguments Ex. : “Such is not the course adopted by tyranny in democratic republics, body is left free, and the soul is enslaved. ” The writer asserts that, in democratic republics, the soul is enslaved. This assertion rests upon an assumption – a supposed “fact” that is never actually proved. The assumption is that tyranny does exist in democratic republics.
Qualification (qualifying a statement) – to modify, restrict or limit An unqualified assertion, then, is an opinion stated as truth with no limitations or modifications. If you are asked to defend, challenge, or qualify someone else’s point, then qualify meaner that you may redefine the argument in some way. Ex. : If the position is, “If ignorance is bliss, then its folly to be wise,” a qualification of this argument is illustrated by the following: While ignorance may seem blissful, true wisdom comes from experiencing both happiness and sorrow, and understanding the existence of both good and evil.
Speaker’s stance – the attitude a speaker takes on a particular issue; the speaker’s position Ex. : In George Bernard Shaw “The Devil Speaks,” the devil’s stance is that man’s creative powers are used to create instruments of destruction; man loves destruction and death. Issue – a debatable question that gives rise to different positions or stances Ex. : A rebuttal to the argument that school should begin later in the day because teenagers tend to sleep late is that one function of school is to prepare teenagers for the workplace.
Digression – a departure from the main topic under discussion – may be done intentionally for effect Ex. : Marc Antonym apologizes for digressing in his speech about Julius Caesar. While he focused on the “fact” that Caesar was ambitious, his digression had to do with Career’s good deeds – the real point of his message. A digressive rebuttal is a contradiction that doesn’t address the topic of the original argument. Refute – to prove a person to be wrong Factual theorem – a proposition that is not self-evident but that can be proved from accepted premises.
Generalizations – an assertion about a group or class May be divided into two categories: Subjective generalization depends on personal attitudes and cannot be logically proved or disproved (Ex. : Cigarettes taste DOD). Subjective generalizations are not valid proofs for logical arguments. Probable generalizations are true in most cases but not all. They are useful in argumentation (Ex. : Slum conditions breed crime). Hypothesis – an unproved theory, proposition or supposition Ex. : Changing the legal drinking age from 21 to 18 would make teenagers more responsible.
Circumlocution – to talk in circles; a round-about or indirect way of expressing something Objective – without personal bias or prejudice (the opposite of subjective) – objective analysis is based on facts or evidence instead of personal feeling exposition is writing that explains, so objective exposition would be explanations based on evidence/facts Syllogism – an argument or form of reasoning in which two statements or premises are made and a logical conclusion is drawn from them Ex. All mammals are warm-blooded; whales are mammals; therefore, whales are warm-blooded. Inference – a conclusion drawn from evidence Ex. : The reader infers that Meyer Wolfishly, in The Great Gatsby, is a gangster because of Wolfishness story of Rosy Rosenthal shooting. Rhetoric (The art of using language to influence or persuade. Rhetorical Strategies (Any of the tools used by the author. ) Appeals to Authority – using the endorsement of an “authority’ to make an argument seem convincing Anecdote – the retelling of an incident that may illustrate or prove a point Ex. In his essay “Thinking as a Hobby,” William Goodling recalled his meeting with Einstein to illustrate his difficulty in becoming a grade-one thinker. Rhetorical Purpose/Rhetorical Stance – why the speaker is attempting to persuade or influence the audience Bush’s rhetorical purpose in using the term “Axis of Evil” has been seen as an effort to care Americans into supporting more funding for the military. Dilemma – an argument necessitating a choice between two equally unfavorable or disagreeable alternatives – a false dilemma occurs when a complex situation is over-simplified so that only two choices are presented Ex. America: love it or leave it. (The choice of staying and changing it is not presented. ) Invective – an emotionally violent attack using strong and abusive language Satire – the ridicule of human vices or faults, or social institutions or customs, for the purpose of reform How Writing May Be Put Together Narrative Exposition – A narrative always refers to a plot (sequence of events) – whether short or long. Essay can be narratives. Narrative exposition is the explanation necessary to understanding the plot or the events.
Narrative Development – The way the author develops (plans/structures) the narrative. In essays, the organizational strategy. Ex. : In “Thinking as a Hobby,” the narrative development was governed by Gildings definitions of the three grades of thinking. Narrative Style – The distinctive way a particular author plans/executes his or near narrative. Mencken, in “The Feminine Mind,” employed many figures of speech and generalizations. Discursive Understanding/Discursive Musing – Discursive meaner to wander from one topic to another; to skim over apparently unconnected topics.
It also is defined as based on the conscious use of reasoning as opposed to intuition. – Discursive understanding would be that based on reasoning; discursive musing (thinking). Juxtaposition – To place items side by side, usually referring to contrasting or disparate – don’t seem to fit together – items. – Ironic Juxtaposition is putting two contrasting items together for effect. Ex. : A Depression-era photograph that shows a long line of men waiting for bread who are standing in front of a billboard that says, “America, Land of Opportunity. Terminology – May be used to make a position stronger, more convincing – then we say “rhetorical strategies” – May be used to create a particular impression – then we say “literary’ Theme – the universal truth Tone – the author’s attitude toward his/her material and/or his/her audience – Tone shifts frequently occur in complex passages. Identifying the tone or tones off passage is an essential critical reading skill. Style the distinctive way an author writes – You determine style by characterizing a writer’s choice of words (Figurative language? Concrete details? And his/her sentence structure (syntax). Literary Allusions – Allusions are indirect references to works, events or figures that the author assumes the reader is familiar with. – The most commonly alluded to works are the Bible and Greek/Roman mythology. Ex. : In To Kill a Mockingbird, the narrator says that “we had recently been told that we had nothing to fear but fear itself. ” This is an historical allusion to a speech by Roosevelt during the Depression Allegory a story or characterization through which the author presents an abstract or symbolic concept Ex. Frederick Henrys memory of the ants could be interpreted as an allegory illustrating Hemingway view of an indifferent or even cruel omnipotent power. Metaphor/Metaphorical Reference – A metaphor is a direct comparison of two unlike things. It is an example of figurative language (language that asks you to imaginatively see one thing as something else). – An extended metaphor, or elaborate metaphor, involves several different parts. Ex. : In Kings “l Have a Dream” speech, he uses the metaphoric mages of a bank, vault, promissory note, and check to complete his ideas.
Analogy/ Analogical Comparison/Elaborate Analogy/Extended Analogy – An analogy is another example of figurative language, like the metaphor, but the difference is that the comparison is indirect – using “like” or “as. ” – Analogies are similar to similes, which also use “like” or “as. ” They are usually more developed comparisons than similes. Ex. : “We will never be satisfied until Justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream. ” Symbol – a figure that represents an abstract idea
Ex n To Kill a Mockingbird, the mockingbird, an innocent bird who hurts nothing, represents Tom Robinson. Imagery/llama – language that appeals to any of the five senses Ex. : The snow if velvety. Sentence Structure Syntax – sentence structure – In its most basic concepts, sentence length, the order of words within a sentence, and the forms – parallelism, for example. Parallelism – the repetition of similar syntactical forms – In analyzing parallelism, you should always look at the words that are made parallel. What ideas does the writer want you to emphasize?
Parallel structure sakes things look equal (“l cam, I saw, I conquered”), and it emphasizes ideas (“Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, etc. ” Repetition emphasizes the action King wants listeners to take. ). Balanced Phrases or Clauses – two equal phrases an clauses Antithesis – the contrast of opposites within parallel clauses Ex. : “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times. ” Other Terms to Know Paradox – a reconciliation of opposites; a true statement that seems contradictory – The example above from A Tale of Two Cities is both antithesis and paradox.
But the tenement, “In winter it is cold; in summer it is hot” is antithesis but NOT paradox. It is showing differences at different times, not at the same time. Oxymoron – a two-word expression of seeming contradiction Ex. : Jumbo shrimp, deafening silence Overstatement/Hyperbole – a deliberate exaggeration – as when Mary Oliver says of the screech owl that if it could, “it would devour the whole world” Understatement – a way of deliberately representing something as less than it is in order to stress its magnitude – also called litotes Ex. : Hemingway writing that “only 7,000 died of cholera” in his book about World
Word 1 Sound Devices Alliteration – the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words – the effect may be harsh, smooth or silly, depending on what letter is repeated Onomatopoeia – words that sound like what they are Ex. : crinkle, murmur, pop Grammatical Terms Antecedent – All pronouns refer to nouns previously mentioned. This noun is the pronoun’s antecedent. Prepositions – the little words that show the relationship of one noun to another – always occur in phrases Ex. : The man in the hat will begin the play. The bridge over the river is very old.
